Geography Livelihood dynamics in tropical drylands

Rural populations in Kenya’s drylands face multiple challenges that result from population growth, poor access to markets as well as changes in climate and land use. Most people in these areas rely on the productive capacity of the land for their sustenance with insecure access to water and fertile soils. This study provides a longitudinal perspective on smallholder livelihoods with a case study in semi-arid Laikipia, Kenya. The analysis is based on a livelihood panel dataset of smallholder households interviewed in 1992, 1997, and 2013. Additional interviews and group discussions with a broad cross-section of society were carried out between 2010 and 2013 to inform and contextualize the study. In order to enable a comparison across time and between ecological zones, two separate well-being indices were developed and tested. The first composite index used categorical principal component analysis, while the second was established through a participatory process. The indices proved valuable to assess changes in well-being holistically and can highlight differences between well-being categories and ecological zones. The results show a striking persistence in low asset endowment for the majority of smallholders from an aggregated perspective, whereas transitions into and out of better or worse livelihood conditions become evident from a household perspective. It was found that the investment in, and accumulation of, conventional buffer or productive assets, such as grain stocks, livestock, or land, does not shield households from adverse shocks and stresses as smallholders are shown to easily slip back into poverty. The main factors contributing to this persistence in low incomes include farm plot sizes unsuited to a rain-scarce region and poor access to agricultural and financial markets. Owing in part to these constraints households seek alternative development pathways, largely through a diversification to non-farm sources of income and/or on-farm-based adaptations that aim at minimising their reliance on rainfall. Most households have at least one member actively seeking or engaging in off-farm employment. However, these are often insecure and poorly paid and therefore make little difference to their overall household incomes. Large-scale commercial farms emerged as one of the largest employers in the area, bringing in much needed economic activity and opportunities, but not without increasing pressure on already limited water resources. The direct and indirect implications of the growing export-oriented industry on smallholder lives in the region are identified,  revealing how global agricultural markets impact on rural populations. In order to counter the effects of water scarcity, a large proportion of the surveyed households joined water user associations. These have a legal mandate to extract river water for irrigation and domestic use, and to manage its equitable distribution. However, problems of mismanagement and misuse of funds, and the unfair distribution of water limit the efficacy of these institutions. Moreover, the relatively high cost of membership excludes many poorer households. Capacity building and collective action are identified as future approaches that can support and strengthen smallholders’ livelihood security. The study emphasises the prospects of indicator-based longitudinal studies to enhance the understanding of livelihood strategies in drylands and to identify intervention options for poverty reduction and sustainable regional development. Asset portfolios offer both a quantifiable as well as a holistic perspective on livelihood dynamics for policy makers. 

PhD Candidate: Anne Ulrich
Funding: Volkswagen Foundation
Project: Semi-arid areas in transition: Livelihood security, socio-ecological variability and the role of development interventions in East Africa
Duration:

Ulrich A (2014): Export-Oriented Horticultural Production in Laikipia, Kenya: Assessing the Implications for Rural Livelihoods. Sustainability 6:336–347. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6010336

Ulrich A (2016): Livelihood Dynamics in Tropical Drylands: Mixed Farming, Water Management and Market Integration in Laikipia, Kenya. Heidelberger Geographische Arbeiten 135.  Universität Heidelberg.

Ulrich A, Ifejika-Speranza C, Roden P, Kiteme B, Wiesmann U & Nüsser M (2012): Small-scale farming in semi-arid areas: Livelihood dynamics between 1997 and 2010 in Laikipia, Kenya. Journal of Rural Studies, 28:241–25. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2012.02.003.1

Roden P, Bergmann C, Ulrich A & Nüsser M (2016): Tracing Divergent Livelihood Pathways in the Drylands: A Perspective on two Spatially Proximate Locations in Laikipia County, Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments 124: 239-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.08.004